Scientific Theories Essay Example for Free

Scientific Theories Essay One of the major preoccupations of XX’s century scientific philosophers was the development of complex scientific theory explaining how science comes to be and how it works. Since 1900-s several basic theories have been proposed to explain science. This paper aims to provide an overview of those theories especially concentrating on ideas of scientific revolution by Thomas S. Kuhn. Already David Hume in â€Å"A Treatise of Human Nature† noticed, that we can never truly prove the existence of casual laws but we can only perceive them and their consequences. And as we can not know the truth about laws, we can never know the law itself, so it is always open for reconsideration. W.V. Quine went even further by proposing, that even mathematical theorems can from time to time be revised if necessary. Thusly they have created grounds for illogical negativism, under which no statement can be recognized absolutely true. In the 1920-s Moritz Schlicks and Hans Reichenbach offered another view which they called logical positivism. Basically recognizing that no statement can be true or false a priory, logical positivists held that every piece of knowledge is based on logics of â€Å"protocol sentences† based on observable events. In order to be recognized true or false a statement is to meet a verifiability criterion. Only in this case a statement can be recognized meaningful. However, some of the positivists noticed, that even non-verifiable statements may have some cognitive value[1]. In the 1930-s Karl Popper raised criticism against positivist model and introduced a theory based on ideas of practicing scientists. Under his idea scientific progress is achieved by rejection of earlier false theories and creation of a new theory when the old one no longer fits the empiric facts. The new theory is therefore closer to truth. So physics of Aristotle has been replaced by physics of Newton and physics of Newton by the one of Einstein. Every new theory explains the world in new terms and on a new level, Progressive theory has been sharply criticized by Thomas Kuhn in his â€Å"Structure of Scientific Revolutions†, published in 1962. Under his idea, scientific progress is a set of dominant structures, which he called paradigms.   Scientific research passes through stages of â€Å"normal† development including solving of current problems and â€Å"revolutionary stage†. Revolutionary stage or paradigm shift means testing of new theories and assumptions which causes a state of crisis in the old theories, when paradigms are sufficiently unprecedented to attract an enduring group of adherents away from competing modes of scientific activity[2] For Kuhn a new paradigm is not only a new theory, but a totally new view on the world and a new way of thinking. A paradigm is not a new answer to a question, but it is revolutionary new way of putting questions themselves. Core questions of the old paradigm are rejected by a new one as those, which are no longer applicable[3]. Moreover, one paradigm can not be understood in terms of another paradigm, so changing paradigms necessarily causes a crisis. Kuhn explained this using examples from astronomy by noticing that Given a particular discrepancy, astronomers were invariably able to eliminate it by making some particular adjustment in Ptolemy’s system of compounded circles. But astronomy’s complexity was increasing far more rapidly than its accuracy and that a discrepancy corrected in one place was likely to show up in another.[4] Paradigm changes the world itself, and Kuhn offers an example of Lavoisier, who saw nature differently after discovering oxygen[5]. After scientific revolution has happened, communications are to restored between advocates of new and old theories. This is a hard and long lasting process, which often ends by physical death of the â€Å"old† scientists, because Conversions will occur a few at a time until, after the last hold-outs have died, the whole profession will again be practicing under a single, but now different, paradigm[6].   This caused claims of relativism which Kuhn himself denied in the later editions of his book. However, despite of all, Kuhn’s idea have deeply influenced the modern philosophic vocabulary. Such terms as â€Å"paradigm†, â€Å"paradigm shift†, â€Å"normal science† and â€Å"revolutionary science† are now widely applied by scientists and philosophers, especially in social science, political science and international relations theory[7]. Among the latest critics one should mention reasoning by Paul Feyerabend. He noticed, that there were many cases in the history of science, when scientists considered their theories a priory accurate long after some facts are discovered, which demonstrate the weakness of the theory. Under Feyerabend’s assumption there exist certain forms of scientific thinking, which allow scholars to recognize certain theories as scientific. So methodology of science can be pluralistic and include methods from different periods. New methods of reasoning do not substitute old ones, but they enter the scientific cannon together and mutually influence each other[8]. Works Cited Friedman, Michael, (1999) Reconsidering Logical Positivism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press Thomas S. Kuhn (1996) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University Of Chicago Press; 3 edition Fuller S. (2000) Thomas Kuhn: A Philosophical History for Our Times. Chicago: University of Chicago Press Bird A. (2000) Thomas Kuhn. Princeton and London: Princeton University Press and Acumen Press Paul K. Feyerabend (1999) Knowledge, Science and Relativism. Vol. 3, Cambridge [1]   Friedman, Michael, (1999) Reconsidering Logical Positivism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, p,- 43 [2] Thomas S. Kuhn   (1996) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University Of Chicago Press; 3 edition, p.-10 [3] Fuller S. (2000) Thomas Kuhn: A Philosophical History for Our Times. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p.-70 [4] Thomas S. Kuhn   (1996) ibidem, p.-65 [5] Supra note, p.- 118 [6] Supra note, p.-152 [7] Bird A. (2000) Thomas Kuhn. Princeton and London: Princeton University Press and Acumen Press. p.- 113 [8] See: Paul K. Feyerabend (1999) Knowledge, Science and Relativism. Vol. 3, Cambridge University Press

mice and men :: essays research papers

If two characters stand out to me who contrast in the more ways in the book Of Mice and Men, it would be Curley and Lennie. One is smart and witty while the other is big, dumb, and strong. From the moment these two characters meet, Curley has a hate towards Lennie. Lennie is to dumb to dislike Curley back because Lennie does whatever George tells him to, and George tells Lennie to stay away form Curley. Steinbeck makes Curley out to be a character in which you dislike from meeting him. He is rude towards George and Lennie, and everyone at the ranch abhors him. Curley is quick and a good fighter because he was the runner-up in the â€Å"Golden Gloves† competition, so he can fight. Lennie is almost completely opposite. He isn’t a fighter; he just is a hard worker. Not smart or witty, just listens to directions and does his best. Doesn’t want any trouble from anybody; just wants everyone to get along and he just wants to take care of the rabbits. Lennie comes off t o me as a very nice loving character that everyone likes and gets along with. He is so innocent, and all Curley does is harass him because he is jealous of his size. I feel bad for Lennie because he doesn’t know that Curley is doing this he just does what Lennie, with the help of George’s instruction, wants to do and minds his own business. Even though these characters are different in numerous ways, there is always a foundation for similarities, and of course Lennie and Curley have their occasional resemblance of each other. Both men are interested in the same woman. Curley is married to a woman who ahs the eye real bad, and Lennie thinks this woman is pretty. Even though Lennie doesn’t know that looking at her that way is wrong, he still does and Curley looks at her the same way. These men are both chasing the same girl just neither knows about it. I believe that Lennie chasing Curley’s wife is going to cause some sort of problem later in this story. Even though this may be a very simple comparison, they both work on the ranch and buck barley. Even though Lennie is a much better worker, they have to do the same thing for the same money. So they are equals on this basis.

Of their version of Romeo and Juliet Essay

The opening scene in the version including Zeffereli is set in an old market place, which shows that Romeo and Juliet story took place a long time ago. When the two households salves meet in the market one of the monauge salves bites his thumb at the Capulet slaves. In this part the director is showing that biting your thumb at someone was as bad verbally swearing at some one to insult him or her. The director uses old colourful clothing on the slaves. The monauges have the same outfit and so do the Capulet’s this is the way that they show they are from the two different households. The two households have a fight because of the thumb biting. The fight is use of swords and some using fists. When the police arrive they are threatened that if this happens again your lives will pay the price. The Capulet households have a ball and invite the monauges. At the ball the director uses very old and classical music that gives the feeling that it was set a long time ago. In the ball Romeo meets Juliet for the first time and instantly fall in love. The director uses this to show that people can fall in love at first sight, but Romeo and Juliet cannot stay together for the whole ball as Juliet’s mother has planed for her to marry some other man. Just before the monauges leave Romeo finds out that Juliet is a Capulet and Juliet finds out that Romeo is a monauge. The director shows that the two households hate each other so much that two lovers have second thoughts about each other. The opening scene with Leonardo de caprio is set in a petrol station and is a bit more modern. The two households meet and a Capulet bites his thumb at the monauges. The director shows that biting your thumb at someone was a very insulting insult. When the two households start to shoot at each other the director is further explaining that the feud was serious. When the police arrive both households are threatened with their lives if it happens again. Now the director is telling us that the feud has been going on for a long time. The Capulet household holds a ball and invites the Montagues.

The Persian Empire By Cyrus The Great - 1710 Words

In 6th century BCE the Persian Empire was the main empire dominating most of the Mediterranean Sea. It ran from part of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan in to modern day Turkey and portions of Northern Greece. The Persian Empire was a strict state with powerful kings ruling over the massive empire. The empire ruled over a vast ethnic group and proved to have success in diversity, especially with Jews, whose history have been well documented with the Persian Empire. The beginning of the Persian Empire is accredited to the wise guidance of a man known as Cyrus the Great. Cyrus was a bright and influential Persian king whose approach for expanding the Persian Empire was to conquer nearing lands with the goal of uniting them into one vast empire. With his dexterous guidance and a solid military, Cyrus succeeded in fashioning a massive empire that lasted for more than two hundred years. The strong roots and influences brought to the Persian Empire by Cyrus gave the emperors after him much power, like Darius I, who continued to enlarge the Empire. In the year 550 Cyrus the Great took power over the land of Media. As he began to create a strong government he elected both Median and Persian nobles as civilian officials. After conquering Media’s people states throughout Anatolia soon fell under his reign. He then even conquered lands in the area known as the Fertile Crescent. After this the Persian Empire was enormous. 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